User Guide

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A Quick Guide to the History of Egypt
to take advantage of available natural resources. Mining on the Sinai
peninsula and in Nubia again produced the raw materials necessary to
make fine art objects.
The Eleventh Dynasty also saw the renewal of trade relations with
other countries. Old trade routes were reopened, including the Wadi
Hammamat, the dried river bed that served as the link between the Red
Sea and Kebet (Coptos). Mentuhotep III also commissioned a trip to dis-
tant Pwenet (Punt) to acquire myrrh.
Beer
Ancient Egypt is one of the most studied and revered cultures
that has ever existed. What conclusions, then, can be drawn from the
Egyptians’ passion for beer?
Beer, or heneket in the ancient Egyptian tongue, was the bever-
age of choice for the ancient Egyptians from the loftiest pharaoh to the
lowliest peasant. The beer was fermented from barley, which was most
likely baked into a bread at the start of the brewing process. Water was
poured over the bread until it fermented, and sometimes it was flavored
with fruits. The elixir was passed through a strainer and bottled for con-
sumption.
Beer was drunk through a special mug that had a straw attached
to it. At the end of the straw was a filter to remove any of the remaining
tidbits of barley bread left in the beer. Beer was enjoyed at home, but the
Egyptians also went out to their local taverns to drink with friends and
play games.
The importance of drinking beer was recognized at Deir el-
Medina, the workers’ village established to support the construction work
at the Valley of the Kings. In an old attendance record recovered from
the sight, spending a day drinking was a legitimate reason for missing
work. The ancient Egyptians certainly were an advanced culture.
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A Quick Guide to the History of Egypt
marked change in the funerary customs themselves. Pharaohs, as gods,
were not judged before entering the afterlife. When the afterlife was
opened to mortals, the concepts of a final judgment and last confession
were introduced.
Artistically, sculpture and architecture suffered during the First
Intermediate Period. Resources were limited, and attention was turned to
feeding people and consolidating power. During this time, however, the
groundwork was laid for the great literary works of the Middle Kingdom.
Without the unifying, religious force of the pharaohs, writers felt freer to
express personal thoughts on secular subjects.
Middle Kingdom
11th-14th Dynasties
2066-1650 BC
At the start of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt again recognized
pharaoh as the supreme ruler of the land. Conditions had changed con-
siderably from the Old Kingdom, however. The power that regional lead-
ers found during the First Intermediate period continued in the Middle
Kingdom, and pharaohs were tasked with keeping their nomarchs under
control. Many nomarchs held standing armies, which the pharaohs
allowed as long as the nomarchs provided troops when the pharaohs
requested them.
After the reunification of Egypt, Mentuhotep II and his succes-
sors formed the Eleventh Dynasty and reigned for about 70 years.
Military might was strong during their dynasty, and expeditions to Sinai,
Palestine, Nubia and Libya were undertaken to both suppress enemies and